Review of Recent Developments in Thermochemical Energy Storage Materials and Systems

Yanan Zhang; Devrim Aydin; Hasila Jarimi; Cagri Kutlu

doi:10.65582/rrs.2026.008

Authors

Yanan Zhang Department of Architecture and Built Environment, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Nottingham NG7 2RD, United Kingdom https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6931-2163
Devrim Aydin Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eastern Mediterranean University, G. Magosa, TRNC Mersin 10, Türkiye; Department of Architecture and Built Environment, The University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5292-7567
Hasila Jarimi Department of Architecture and Built Environment, University of Nottingham, NG7 2RD, United Kingdom; Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi Selangor, Malaysia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0921-3283
Cagri Kutlu Department of Mechanical Engineering, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Türkiye https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8462-0420

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.65582/rrs.2026.008

Keywords:

Thermochemical energy storage (TES), Reversible chemical reactions, Salt hydrates and composite sorbents, Reactor design and system integration, Solar thermal and waste heat utilization

Abstract

Thermochemical energy storage (TES) is emerging as a transformative solution for enhancing thermal energy management in buildings and industrial applications. Unlike conventional sensible and latent heat storage, TES systems store energy through reversible chemical reactions, offering significantly higher energy densities and minimal standby losses. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent developments in TES materials and system configurations, including both closed-cycle systems (e.g., chemical heat pumps, adsorption/absorption cycles) and open-cycle systems integrated with solar thermal collectors. Advances in material engineering—particularly in salt hydrates, composite sorbents, and nanostructured materials—have led to improvements in cyclic stability, regeneration temperature, and thermal efficiency. The paper also highlights innovative reactor designs such as fixed-bed, fluidized-bed, and plate-fin heat exchangers, alongside smart control and additive manufacturing approaches. Key technical challenges, including reaction kinetics, long-term stability, and heat/mass transfer complexity, are discussed to identify future research needs. This review aims to support the development of high-performance, scalable TES systems for sustainable and flexible energy infrastructure.

References

Abedin, A. H. & Rosen, M. A., 2012. Closed and open thermochemical energy storage: energy-and exergy-based comparisons. Energy, 41, 83-92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.06.034. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2011.06.034

Aman, J., Ting, D.-K. & Henshaw, P., 2014. Residential solar air conditioning: Energy and exergy analyses of an ammonia–water absorption cooling system. Applied Thermal Engineering, 62, 424-432. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.10.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2013.10.006

Amir, M., Deshmukh, R. G., Khalid, H. M., Said, Z., Raza, A., Muyeen, S., Nizami, A.-S., Elavarasan, R. M., Saidur, R. & Sopian, K., 2023. Energy storage technologies: An integrated survey of developments, global economical/environmental effects, optimal scheduling model, and sustainable adaption policies. Journal of Energy Storage, 72, 108694. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108694. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108694

Aristov, Y. I., 2007. New family of solid sorbents for adsorptive cooling: material scientist approach. Journal of Engineering Thermophysics, 16, 63-72. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1134/S1810232807020026

Aydin, D., Casey, S. P. & Riffat, S., 2015. The latest advancements on thermochemical heat storage systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 41, 356-367. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.08.054. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.08.054

Bahrami, K. C. C. C. Y. H. C. M., Heat And Mass Transfer Characteristics Of A Zeolite 13x/Cacl2 Composite Adsorbent In Adsorption Cooling Systems. Proceedings of the ASME 2012 6th International Conference on Energy Sustainability & 10th Fuel Cell Science, Engineering and Technology Conference ESFuelCell 2012, July 23-26, 2012 2012 San Diego, CA, USA. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/ES2012-91246. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/ES2012-91246

Bales, C., Chemical and sorption heat storage. Proceedings of DANVAK Seminar, DANVAK Seminar (Solar Heating Systems–Combisystems-Heat Storage), November, 2006.

Barbatelli, M., 2023. Cementitious based composite materials for thermal energy storage applications. Politecnico di Torino.

Basso, G. L., Mojtahed, A., Pastore, L. M. & De Santoli, L., 2023. High-efficiency solution for an open-loop desiccant assisted solar cooling system by integrating trans-critical CO2 heat pumps: A comprehensive techno-economic assessment. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 20, 100437. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100437. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2023.100437

Boer R, H. W. G., Veldhuis J B J, et al., Solid-sorption cooling with integrated thermal storage-the SWEAT prototype. The 3rd International Heat Powered Cycles Conference (HPC 2004), 2004 Larnaca, Cyprus.

Boldoo, T., Chinnasamy, V. & Cho, H, 2024. Enhancing efficiency and sustainability: Utilizing high energy density paraffin-based various PCM emulsions for low-medium temperature applications. Energy, 303, 131988. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.131988. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.131988

Cabeza, L., Martorell, I., Miró, L., Fernández, A. & Barreneche, C., 2015. Introduction to thermal energy storage (TES) systems. Advances in thermal energy storage systems. Elsevier. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1533/9781782420965.1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1533/9781782420965.1

Carrero, A., Vizcaíno, A. J., Calles, J. A. & García-Moreno, L., 2017. Hydrogen production through glycerol steam reforming using Co catalysts supported on SBA-15 doped with Zr, Ce and La. Journal of Energy Chemistry, 26, 42-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2016.09.001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2016.09.001

Chen, C.-C., Do, J.-S. & Gu, Y., 2009. Immobilization of HRP in Mesoporous Silica and Its Application for the Construction of Polyaniline Modified Hydrogen Peroxide Biosensor. Sensors, 9, 4635. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604635. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s90604635

Chen, E., Xie, M., Jia, T., Zhao, Y. & Dai, Y., 2022. Performance assessment of a solar-assisted absorption-compression system for both heating and cooling. Applied Energy, 328, 120238. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120238. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.120238

Connolly, D., Lund, H., Mathiesen, B. V., Werner, S., Möller, B., Persson, U., Boermans, T., Trier, D., Østergaard, P. A. & Nielsen, S., 2014. Heat Roadmap Europe: Combining district heating with heat savings to decarbonise the EU energy system. Energy policy, 65, 475-489. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.035

Craig, B., 1995. DS Anderson Handbook of corrosion data. ASM International, USA.

Daniarta, S., Nemś, M. & Kolasiński, P. 2023. A review on thermal energy storage applicable for low-and medium-temperature organic Rankine cycle. Energy, 278, 127931. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127931. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127931

De Jong, A.-J., Van Vliet, L., Hoegaerts, C., Roelands, M. & Cuypers, R., 2016. Thermochemical heat storage–from reaction storage density to system storage density. Energy Procedia, 91, 128-137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.06.187. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2016.06.187

Dicaire, D. & Tezel, F. H., 2013. Use of adsorbents for thermal energy storage of solar or excess heat: improvement of energy density. International journal of energy research, 37, 1059-1068. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/er.2913. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/er.2913

Ding, Z. & Wu, W., 2021. A hybrid compression-assisted absorption thermal battery with high energy storage density/efficiency and low charging temperature. Applied Energy, 282, 116068. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116068. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116068

Ding, Z., Wu, W. & Leung, M., 2021. Advanced/hybrid thermal energy storage technology: material, cycle, system and perspective. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 145, 111088. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111088. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111088

Donkers, P., Sögütoglu, L., Huinink, H., Fischer, H. & Adan, O., 2017. A review of salt hydrates for seasonal heat storage in domestic applications. Applied Energy, 199, 45-68. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.04.080. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.04.080

Du, L. & Jana, S. C., 2007. Highly conductive epoxy/graphite composites for bipolar plates in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources, 172, 734-741. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.05.088. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.05.088

Duan, Z., Zhan, C., Zhang, X., Mustafa, M., Zhao, X., Alimohammadisagvand, B. & Hasan, A. (2012) ‘Indirect evaporative cooling: Past, present and future potentials’, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16, 6823-6850. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.07.007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.07.007

Elkhatat, A. & Al-Muhtaseb, S. A., 2023. Combined “renewable energy–thermal energy storage (RE–TES)” systems: a review. Energies, 16, 4471. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114471. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16114471

Elmer, T., Wu, S. and Riffat, S., 2016. An experimental study of a novel integrated desiccant air conditioning system for building applications. Energy and Buildings, 111, 434-445. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.11.065. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.11.065

Glaznev, I., Ponomarenko, I., Kirik, S. & Aristov, Y., 2011. Composites CaCl2/SBA-15 for adsorptive transformation of low temperature heat: Pore size effect. International Journal of Refrigeration, 34, 1244-1250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2011.02.007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2011.02.007

H Abedin, A. & A Rosen, M., 2011. A critical review of thermochemical energy storage systems. The Open Renewable Energy Journal, 4. DOI: dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876387101004010042. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1876387101004010042

Hadorn J C, S. G. B. B. C., IEA solar heating and cooling programme task 32: advanced storage concepts for solar and low energy buildings. 2006. Ecostock 2006-The 10th International Conference on Thermal Energy Storage.

Hamamoto, Y., Alam, K. C. A., Saha, B. B., Koyama, S., Akisawa, A. & Kashiwagi, T., 2006a. Study on adsorption refrigeration cycle utilizing activated carbon fibers. Part 1. Adsorption characteristics. International Journal of Refrigeration, 29, 305-314. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2005.06.001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2005.04.008

Hamamoto, Y., Alam, K. C. A., Saha, B. B., Koyama, S., Akisawa, A. & Kashiwagi, T., 2006b. Study on adsorption refrigeration cycle utilizing activated carbon fibers. Part 2. Cycle performance evaluation. International Journal of Refrigeration, 29, 315-327. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2005.06.001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2005.06.001

Hauer, A., Thermal energy storage with zeolite for heating and cooling applications. Proceedings of 3rd Workshop of Annex, 2002. 1-2.

Hekimoğlu, G., Sari, A., Gencel, O., Tyagi, V. & Sharma, R., 2023. Activated carbon/expanded graphite hybrid structure for development of nonadecane based composite PCM with excellent shape stability, enhanced thermal conductivity and heat charging-discharging performance. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 44, 102081. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2023.102081. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2023.102081

Isbell, R., 2016. The Australian soil classification, CSIRO publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/9781486314782. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1071/9781486314782

J, B.-R., 1985. Solar cooling using an open-cycle adsorption system with adiabatical mass transfer and external heat exchange. Solar energy, 35, 93-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(85)90040-4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(85)90040-4

J.A. Quinnell, J. H. D., J. Burch, 2011. Liquid calcium chloride solar storage: concept and analysis. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4003292. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4003292

James, N., Kaur, S., Brown, F., Bianchi, M., Vidal, J. & Hun, D., 2021. Thermal Energy Storage Systems for Buildings Workshop: Priorities and Pathways to Widespread Deployment of Thermal Energy Storage in Buildings. National Renewable Energy Lab.(NREL), Golden, CO (United States). DOI: dx.doi.org/ 10.2172/1823025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2172/1823025

Ji, W., Zhang, H., Liu, S., Wang, Z. & Deng, S., 2022. An experimental study on the binary hydrated salt composite zeolite for improving thermochemical energy storage performance. Renewable Energy, 194, 1163-1173. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.06.024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2022.06.024

Jiang, J., Chan, A., Ali, S., Saha, A., Haushalter, K. J., Lam, W.-L. M., Glasheen, M., Parker, J., Brenner, M. & Mahon, S. B., 2016. Hydrogen sulfide—mechanisms of toxicity and development of an antidote. Scientific reports, 6, 20831. DOI: doi.org/10.1038/srep20831. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20831

Kant, K. & Pitchumani, R., 2022. Advances and opportunities in thermochemical heat storage systems for buildings applications. Applied Energy, 321, 119299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119299

Kyotani, T., Nagai, T., Inoue, S. & Tomita, A., 1997. Formation of new type of porous carbon by carbonization in zeolite nanochannels. Chemistry of materials, 9, 609-615. DOI: doi.org/ 10.1021/CM960430H. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/cm960430h

Li, G., 2016. Sensible heat thermal storage energy and exergy performance evaluations. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 53, 897-923. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.006

Li, H., Eddaoudi, M., O'keeffe, M. & Yaghi, O. M., 1999. Design and synthesis of an exceptionally stable and highly porous metal-organic framework. Nature, 402, 276-279. DOI: doi.org/10.1038/46248. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/46248

Liu, D., Xin‐Feng, L., Bo, L., Si‐Quan, Z. & Yan, X., 2018. Progress in thermochemical energy storage for concentrated solar power: A review. International journal of energy research, 42, 4546-4561. DOI: doi.org/ 10.1002/er.4183. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4183

Liu, G., Ji, D. & Markides, C. N., 2024. Progress and prospects of low-grade thermal energy utilization technologies. Applied Thermal Engineering, 123859. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2024.123859. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2024.123859

Liu, H., Nagano, K. & Togawa, J., 2015. A composite material made of mesoporous siliceous shale impregnated with lithium chloride for an open sorption thermal energy storage system. Solar Energy, 111, 186-200. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2014.10.044. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2014.10.044

Liu, X., Liu, X., Yang, F. & Wu, Y., 2024. Experimental investigation of low-temperature fluidised bed thermochemical energy storage with salt-mesoporous silica composite materials. Applied Energy, 362, 122953. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122953. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2024.122953

Liu, Y., Wang, R. & Xia, Z., 2005. Experimental performance of a silica gel–water adsorption chiller. Applied Thermal Engineering, 25, 359-375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2004.06.012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2004.06.012

Miró, L., Gasia, J. & Cabeza, L. F., 2016. Thermal energy storage (TES) for industrial waste heat (IWH) recovery: A review. Applied energy, 179, 284-301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.06.147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.06.147

Moulakhnif, K., Ousaleh, H. A., Sair, S., Bouhaj, Y., El Majd, A., Ghazoui, M., Faik, A. & El Bouari, A., 2024. Renewable approaches to building heat: exploring cutting-edge innovations in thermochemical energy storage for building heating. Energy and Buildings, 318, 114421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114421

Nejhad, M. K., 2019. Design and Development of a Novel Thermochemical Reactor Using Composite Sorbent for Solar Thermal Energy Storage.

Nielsen, E., Becker-Hardt, S., Englmair, G., Kong, W. & Furbo, S., 2022. Investigation on an air solar-driven open sorption system for comfort cooling. Solar Energy, 231, 57-71. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.11.018. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2021.11.018

Padula, S., Tregambi, C., Solimene, R., Chirone, R., Troiano, M. & Salatino, P., 2021. A novel fluidized bed “thermochemical battery” for energy storage in concentrated solar thermal technologies. Energy Conversion and Management, 236, 113994. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.113994. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.113994

Qin, Y., Liu, T., Li, P., Zhao, K., Jiao, F., Pei, G. & Liu, Q., 2024. New Hybrid CHP System Integrating Solar Energy and Exhaust Heat Thermochemical Synergistic Conversion with Dual-Source Energy Storage. Journal of Thermal Science, 33, 970-984. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11630-024-1906-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11630-024-1906-3

Quinnell, J. & Davidson, J., 2014. Heat and mass transfer during heating of a hybrid absorption/sensible storage tank. Solar Energy, 104, 19-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.07.035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.07.035

Rao, G. P. C., Satyaveni, S., Ramesh, A., Seshaiah, K., Murthy, K. & Choudary, N., 2006. Sorption of cadmium and zinc from aqueous solutions by zeolite 4A, zeolite 13X and bentonite. Journal of environmental management, 81, 265-272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.11.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.11.003

Riaz, N., Sultan, M., Noor, S., Sajjad, U., Farooq, M., Khan, M. U., Hanif, S. & Riaz, F., 2022. Recent developments in adsorption heat pumps for heating applications. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 14, 16878132221089444. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/16878132221089444. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/16878132221089444

Risthaus, K., Linder, M. & Schmidt, M., 2022. Experimental investigation of a novel mechanically fluidized bed reactor for thermochemical energy storage with calcium hydroxide/calcium oxide. Applied Energy, 315, 118976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.118976. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.118976

Roelands, M., Cuypers, R., Kruit, K. D., Oversloot, H., De Jong, A.-J., Duvalois, W., Van Vliet, L. & Hoegaerts, C., 2015. Preparation & characterization of sodium sulfide hydrates for application in thermochemical storage systems. Energy Procedia, 70, 257-266. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.02.122. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2015.02.122

Ruiter, J. P., 1987. Storage of thermal energy by means of an absorption cycle. NASA STI/Recon Technical Report N, 88.

Sadeghi, G., 2022. Energy storage on demand: Thermal energy storage development, materials, design, and integration challenges. Energy Storage Materials, 46, 192-222. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2022.01.017. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ensm.2022.01.017

Sahlot, M. & Riffat, S. B., 2016. Desiccant cooling systems: a review. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 11, 489-505. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctv032. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlct/ctv032

Shi, T., Xu, H., Ke, H. & Zhao, C. 2022. Thermal transport of charging/discharging for hydrogen storage in a metal hydride reactor coupled with thermochemical heat storage materials. Energy Conversion and Management, 273, 116421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116421. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116421

Tatsidjodoung, P., Le Pierrès, N., Heintz, J., Lagre, D., Luo, L. & Durier, F., 2016. Experimental and numerical investigations of a zeolite 13X/water reactor for solar heat storage in buildings. Energy Conversion and Management, 108, 488-500. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.11.011. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.11.011

Tian, X., Guo, S., Jiang, L., Lin, S., Yan, J. & Zhao, C., 2024. Integrated operation and efficiency analysis of CaCO3/CaO in a fixed-bed reactor for thermochemical energy storage. Energy, 294, 130867. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.130867. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.130867

Tso, C. Y. & Chao, C. Y. H., 2012. Activated carbon, silica-gel and calcium chloride composite adsorbents for energy efficient solar adsorption cooling and dehumidification systems. International Journal of Refrigeration, 35, 1626-1638. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2012.05.007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2012.05.007

Wang, A., Qu, J., Ru, J., Liu, H. & Ge, J., 2005. Mineralization of an azo dye Acid Red 14 by electro-Fenton's reagent using an activated carbon fiber cathode. Dyes and Pigments, 65, 227-233. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2004.07.019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dyepig.2004.07.019

Warnqvist, B., 1980. Comments on thermochemical data and fusion temperature for pure sodium sulfide. Thermochimica Acta, 37, 343-345. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-6031(80)87165-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0040-6031(80)87165-6

Woods J, K. E., 2013. A desiccant-enhanced evaporative air conditioner: numerical model and experiments. Energy Conversion and Management, 65, 208-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2012.08.007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2012.08.007

Woods J, P. J., Kozubal E, et al., 2011. Design and experimental characterization of a membrane-based absorption heat pump. Journal of membrane science, 378, 85-94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2010.11.012. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2010.11.012

Wu, S., Zhou, C., Tremain, P., Doroodchi, E. & Moghtaderi, B., 2021. A phase change calcium looping thermochemical energy storage system based on CaCO3/CaO-CaCl2. Energy Conversion and Management, 227, 113503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2020.113503

Wu, Y. & Wang, T., 2015. Hydrated salts/expanded graphite composite with high thermal conductivity as a shape-stabilized phase change material for thermal energy storage. Energy Conversion and Management, 101, 164-171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.05.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.05.006

Yang B, C. L., Ge Y, et al., 2014. Exergy performance analyses of an irreversible two-stage intercooled regenerative reheated closed Brayton CHP plant. International Journal of Exergy, 14, 459-483. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEX.2014.062920

Yu, N., Wang, R. & Wang, L., 2013. Sorption thermal storage for solar energy. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 39, 489-514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEX.2014.062920. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2013.05.004

Zhang, H., Liu, S., Shukla, A., Zou, Y., Han, X., Shen, Y., Yang, L., Zhang, P. & Kusakana, K., 2022. Thermal performance study of thermochemical reactor using net-packed method. Renewable Energy, 182, 483-493. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.09.115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2021.09.115

Zhang, Y., Chen, Z., Kutlu, C., Su, Y. & Riffat, S., 2022. Investigation on a Vermiculite-Based Solar Thermochemical Heat Storage System for Building Applications. Future Cities and Environment, 8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/fce.153. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/fce.153

Zhang, Y. N., Wang, R. Z., Zhao, Y. J., Li, T. X., Riffat, S. B. & Wajid, N. M., 2016. Development and thermochemical characterizations of vermiculite/SrBr2 composite sorbents for low-temperature heat storage. Energy, 115, Part 1, 120-128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.08.108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.08.108

Zhang, Z. & Fang, X., 2006. Study on paraffin/expanded graphite composite phase change thermal energy storage material. Energy Conversion and Management, 47, 303-310. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2005.03.004. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2005.03.004

Zheng, H., Liu, X., Xuan, Y., Ding, Y. & Flamant, G., 2023. Efficient direct solar-driven thermochemical energy storage of (AlMgFeMn) OxCaCO3 pellets in a fluidized bed reactor. Energy Conversion and Management, 285, 116990. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.116990. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2023.116990

Zhu, D., Wu, H. & Wang, S., 2006. Experimental study on composite silica gel supported CaCl2 sorbent for low grade heat storage. International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 45, 804-813. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2005.10.009. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2005.10.009

Zondag, H., Kikkert, B., Smeding, S., De Boer, R. & Bakker, M., 2013. Prototype thermochemical heat storage with open reactor system. Applied energy, 109, 360-365. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.01.082. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.01.082